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Discourse Analysis

1.      Discourse analysis as a research tool Discourse analysis is concerned with the investigation of language as it is actually used as opposed to an abstract system or structure of language (see Mills 1997 for a historicized account of the term ‘discourse’)
http://www.york.ac.uk/res/researchintegration/Integrative_Research_Methods/Griffin%20Discourse%20Analysis%20April%202007.pdf

2.      The word ‘discourse’, then, in the sense of certain kinds of actual language use, has a variety of meanings (see Mills 1997, esp. pp. 1-26),not least in its relation to formal and informal language use
http://www.york.ac.uk/res/researchintegration/Integrative_Research_Methods/Griffin%20Discourse%20Analysis%20April%202007.pdf

3.      Discourse may refer to the spoken word only, or all utterances written and verbal, or a particular way of talking delineating a specific domain with its own particular vocabularies and sets of meaning such as 5 legal discourse, medical discourse, scientific discourse; in other words, a ‘regulated practice which accounts for a number of statements’ (Foucault 1972: 80)
http://www.york.ac.uk/res/researchintegration/Integrative_Research_Methods/Griffin%20Discourse%20Analysis%20April%202007.pdf

4.      That analysis of language in use has two aspects: the first relates to the language itself that is used, and the second to the process of using language
http://www.york.ac.uk/res/researchintegration/Integrative_Research_Methods/Griffin%20Discourse%20Analysis%20April%202007.pdf

5.      Discourse analysis as a research tool in the study of migration and gender In discussing the use of discourse analysis as a research tool in the study of migration and gender, I have decided to utilize three articles published in the journal Discourse and Society since these may be readily accessed by readers.
http://www.york.ac.uk/res/researchintegration/Integrative_Research_Methods/Griffin%20Discourse%20Analysis%20April%202007.pdf

6.      Discourses refers to “sets of ready-made and pre-constituted ‘experiencing’ displayed and arranged primarily through language
http://www.ijssh.org/papers/163-A10035.pdf

7.      Discourse is a way of representing aspects of world, processes, relations, and structures of material world, mental world of thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and social world
http://www.ijssh.org/papers/163-A10035.pdf

8.      a group of statements which provide a language for talking about –a way of representing– the knowledge about a particular topic at particular moment
http://www.ijssh.org/papers/163-A10035.pdf
9.      Discourse analysis does not presuppose a bias towards the study of either spoken or written language
http://www.english.ugent.be/da

10.  Discourse analysis is a hybrid field of enquiry. Its "lender disciplines" are to be found within various corners of the human and social sciences, with complex historical affiliations and a lot of cross-fertilisation taking place
http://www.english.ugent.be/da

11.  Discourse analysis is a term which has no single stable definition and is therefore useddifferently by different theorists. Schiffin, Tanner and Hamilton point out that discourse analysis is characterised by ‘disciplinary diversity’ and that the tems ‘discourse’ and‘discourse analysis’ are ‘used variously’ (2001, p.1). Scollon & Scollon concur that in‘current usage, the term ‘discourse analysis’ is polysemic’ – it has many meanings (p.538).

12.  Schiffin, Tanner & Hamilton suggest that particularly for linguists ‘discourse’ has‘generally been defined as anything beyond the sentence’ (2000, p.1), whereas for others,such as Fasold (1990), discourse analysis is ‘primarily a study of language use’. Wetherell,Taylor and Yates (2001:i) describe discourse analysis as ‘the study of talk and texts’. Theyelaborate

13.   Taylor (2001, p.5) sees ‘discourse analysis’ as ‘the close studyof language in use’, though she points out that discourse analysis ‘is best understood as afield of research rather than as a single practice’ (2001, p.5)

14.  This verb analyze comes from the noun analysis. The noun analysis was in turn borrowed from Greek, from analyein, or "to dissolve." If you go into analysis, it means that you will be examined and helped by a mental health professional — who will analyze your particular problems and help you find solutions.
https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/analyze
15.  A careful study of something to learn about its parts, what they do, and how they are related to each other.
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/analysis

And my conclusion is Discourse Analysis is one of applied linguistics to evaluation a spoken or written to make us answer some event or language with different asnwer or different pointview.
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Simile

Simile
Similes are a specific and formulaic form of allegory. A simile is a juxtaposed comparison of two or more objects to draw attention to their similarities. In English, similes are typically marked by use of like or as or than or resembles

Common Examples of Simile
  • Our soldiers are as brave as lions.
  • Her cheeks are red like a rose.
  • He is as funny as a monkey.
  • The water well was as dry as a bone.
  • He is as cunning as a fox.

Why Do We Use Similes and Metaphors?

Sometimes, it can be difficult to get a certain point across.  Often, we find ourselves struggling with the proper way to describe something so that the reader (or listener) can picture it in the same way you do.  In these cases, it is often helpful to draw a comparison.
Let’s imagine that you have lived in an area which has no access to the water, and you are given the opportunity to travel and see the ocean for the very first time.  This is sure to be a moving, and breathtaking experience, and one you will definitely want to relay to your fiends back home.  It just doesn’t seem like enough to say “It was big”, or “It was really cool”.  There needs to be more of a descriptive element to your story to help paint the picture for your friends.
This is where similes and metaphors come in.  Let’s look at some simile examples first:
“The ocean was as big and wide as the sky.”
“It was like looking over the edge of the world!”
“Parts of it were calm and clear as a mirror, while other parts were as rough and turbulent as storm clouds.”
“Seeing the ocean for the first time was like walking out into the sunlight after being kept in the dark.”
In each of those examples, you are asking your readers and listeners to recall other objects, and apply the properties of those objects (like the sky, a mirror, and sunlight), to the ocean to help them experience it in the way you did.  Thesefigures of speech are meant to be evocative and direct.  It should put your audience in a position to imagine the specific feelings and images you experienced, even without being there.
Looking at the same ocean experience from the standpoint of metaphors, you will see that these comparisons are perhaps a little more subtle, but also full of potent imagery:
“Seeing the ocean for the first time was an eye opening experience.”
“The ocean was a boiling cauldron of water and life.”
“It was a thunderstorm turned upside-down, hammering on the shore.”

When Are Similes and Metaphors Used?

If you are in an English or literature class, it is possible that your first introduction to similes and metaphors will happen when you learn about either poetry or narrative writing.  It is true that the images created by using these figures of speech can be very striking, and therefore are often used in these types of writing.
For Business Writing
It can also be valuable and beneficial to use similes and metaphors in your everyday speaking and writing.  Let’s look at a few examples which would be appropriate in a business setting.  Imagine you are trying to arrange a meeting atwork via email, and you want to convey how important the issue at hand is.  You might try using some of the following similes:
“Our client is as anxious as a kid on Christmas morning.  It’s imperative that we get him some plans today!”
“This issue is as complicated as a Rubik’s cube.  It’s going to take everyone’s involvement to solve it right.”
“If we can close this sale today, the higher ups will be happy as clams.  Let’s move on this now.”
Sticking with the same situation, you could just as easily use metaphors to convey the urgency of a pressing issue to your coworkers:
“This issue is a hot potato that has been passed around to much.  We need to address it once and for all.”
“We are sitting ducks if we don’t get on this soon.  We want to look good in front of our clients, and the boss.”
“If we can solve this today, and come in under budget, the client will be putty in our hands.”
Each example is comparing one aspect of the issue to an evocative image.  Even though this is a business environment, and not a poetry class, similes and metaphors can be quite useful.
For Educational and School Related Writing:
They can also be used in an educational environment.  Obviously, any writing assignment could always benefit from more description, and more examples to help your reading audience understand your point.  Let’s assume you are working on an essay regarding a political topic, and you are trying to convey why this issue is so important to those involved.  In this case, using similes and metaphors will give your readers something concrete to tie these ideas to, even if they are unfamiliar with the issue itself.
“Appointing this candidate to office will be like putting a fox in charge of a hen house.”
“Addressing the issue with a budget so small will be like trying to cure a severed limb with a band-aid.”
“Merely sitting in the White House makes you a good president about as much as sitting in your garage makes you a car.”
For metaphor examples, let’s switch over to English class.  Here, you are likely to be called upon for some more descriptive and poetic writing.  At some point in your writing career, you will probably have to come up with a few metaphors in apoetry lesson.  Some examples may include:
“Her eyes were twin pools of deep, blue serenity.”
“His anger was a freight train, loud and dangerous.”
“An unopened book is your next big adventure, waiting to happen.”
These are perhaps more flowery examples of ways to get your readers to picture things a certain way, but a frequently used device in English and literature classes.

What Are Some Well Known Similes and Metaphors?

Believe it or not, you probably already know dozens of examples of similes and metaphors – you just may not realize that’s what they are.  Many well known sayings are, in fact, great examples of these figures of speech.  Let’s consider some of the following:
“My love is like a red, red rose.”
“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”
“A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.”
“This is yesterday’s news.”
“Shaking like a leaf on a tree.”
“Sick as a dog.”
“That rubbed me the wrong way.”
Similes and metaphors are a great and easy way to help make your written and spoken language more descriptive, and perhaps easier for your audience to connect with.  These examples do not have to exist only in poems, you can use them every day.  To learn more about poetry, check out Poetry: What it is and How to Understand it for more help.

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Idiom

Idiom
An idiom (also called idiomatic expression) is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning conventionally understood by native speakers. This meaning is different from the literal meaning of the idiom's individual elements. In other words, idioms don't mean exactly what the words say. They have, however, hidden meaning.

Examples

  • "Kick the bucket"
  • "Spill the beans"
The meaning of these expressions is different from the literal meaning or definition of the words of which they are made. Their meaning are however used figuratively. They mean respectively:
  • "to die "
  • "to tell people secret information"
To understand English as it is spoken in real life, you have to be familiar with idioms. They are used so much in everyday English that it is important to be aware of them. You need to learn what they mean, and how to use them to become an ‘insider’.
This blog post will show you some of the most popular English idioms currently in use. Remember, knowledge is power.
1. CRUNCH TIME: the period of time just before a project has to be completed and everyone has to work hard
·         I’m not getting enough sleep these days. It’s crunch time at work.
 LET YOUR FREAK FLAG FLY
2. LET YOUR FREAK FLAG FLY: to let others see your uniqueness
·         My colleagues were surprised at the Christmas party- I let my freak flag fly and showed them a break dance routine.
3. GET OUT OF HAND: when you lose control of things, they get out of hand
·         The party got out of hand and the guests started to throw bottles at each other.
4. GET YOUR HEAD AROUND IT: to understand something
·         I just can’t get my head around the fact that Joe is leaving us.
5. DIG IN YOUR HEELS / STICK TO YOUR GUNS: to refuse to compromise or change your mind
·         My parents wanted me to give up writing, but I dug in my heels and went on to become a famous writer.
·         My parents wanted me to give up writing, but I stuck to my guns and went on to become a famous writer.
References :
http://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/vocabulary-lesson-idioms.php
http://www.myenglishteacher.eu/blog/50-popular-english-idioms-and-slang-words/
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